Eastern Wu

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"Wu dynasty" redirects here. For the earlier Zhou kingdom, see state of Wu. For the later Wu dynasty of the Sui–Tang interregnum, see Li Zitong. For the later Ten Kingdoms empires, see Wuyue and Yang Wu. For the present-day university of the same name, see Soochow University.
Wu
吳
222–280 [1]
The territories of Eastern Wu (in green), 262.
Capital Wuchang
(222–229, 265–266)

Jianye
(229–265, 266–280)
Languages Chinese
Religion Taoism, Confucianism, Chinese folk religion
Government Monarchy
King (222–229)
Emperor (229–280)
 •  222–252 Sun Quan
 •  252–258 Sun Liang
 •  258–264 Sun Xiu
 •  264–280 Sun Hao
Historical era Three Kingdoms
 •  Independence from Cao Wei 222
 •  Sun Quan declaring himself Emperor 229
 •  Conquest of Wu by Jin 31 May 280 [1]
Population
 •  238[2] est. 2,567,000 (disputed) 
 •  280[2] est. 2,535,000 (disputed) 
Currency Chinese coin, Chinese cash
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Cao Wei
Western Jin dynasty
Today part of  China
 Vietnam
Tanner (2009) estimates the Wu population to be about one-sixth of the Han population.[3] This would be much more than the numbers given in 238 and 280, and could be because of census methods used in ancient China.[4]
Eastern Wu
Traditional Chinese 東吳
Simplified Chinese 东吴
Sun Wu
Traditional Chinese 孫吳
Simplified Chinese 孙吴

Wu (222–280), commonly known as Eastern Wu or Sun Wu, was one of the three major states that competed for supremacy over China in the Three Kingdoms period (220–280). It previously existed from 220–222 as a vassal kingdom nominally under Cao Wei, its rival state, but declared independence from Wei and became a sovereign state in 222. It became an empire in 229 after its founding ruler, Sun Quan, declared himself 'Emperor'. Its name was derived from the place it was based in — the Jiangnan (Yangtze River Delta) region, which was also historically known as "Wu". It was referred to as "Eastern Wu" or "Sun Wu" by historians to distinguish it from other Chinese historical states with similar names which were also located in that region, such as the Wu state in the Spring and Autumn period and the Wuyue kingdom in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It was called "Eastern Wu" because it occupied most of eastern China in the Three Kingdoms period, and "Sun Wu" because the family name of its rulers was "Sun". During its existence, Wu's capital was at Jianye (present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu), but at times it was also at Wuchang (武昌; present-day Ezhou, Hubei).[5]

History

A jar made in Eastern Wu dating to the Three Kingdoms period.

Beginnings and founding

Before the dynasty of Eastern Wu was established, the territory was defended by the Sun clan in the Battle of Red Cliffs.

Towards the end of the Han dynasty, Sun Ce, the eldest son of the warlord Sun Jian, and his followers borrowed troops from the warlord Yuan Shu and embarked on a series of military conquests in the Jiangdong and Wu regions between 194 and 199, seizing several territories previously occupied by warlords such as Liu Yao, Yan Baihu and Wang Lang. Sun Ce broke off relations with Yuan Shu around 196-197 after the latter declared himself emperor — an act deemed as treason against Emperor Xian, the figurehead ruler of the Han dynasty. The warlord Cao Cao, who was the de facto head of government in the Han imperial court, asked Emperor Xian to grant Sun Ce the title of "Marquis of Wu" (吳侯).

Sun Ce was assassinated in the summer of 200 and was succeeded by his younger brother, Sun Quan. Sun Quan, like his elder brother, also paid nominal allegiance to Emperor Xian while maintaining autonomous rule over the Wu territories. In 208, Sun Quan allied with the warlord Liu Bei and they combined forces to defeat Cao Cao at the Battle of Red Cliffs. Sun Quan and Liu Bei maintained their alliance against Cao Cao after the battle for the next ten years or so, despite having some territorial disputes over Jing Province. In 219, Sun Quan severed ties with Liu Bei when he sent his general Lü Meng to invade Liu's territories in Jing Province. Guan Yu, who was defending Liu Bei's assets in Jing Province, was captured and executed by Sun Quan's forces. After that, the boundaries of Sun Quan's domain extended from beyond the Jiangdong region to include the southern part of Jing Province, which covered roughly present-day Hunan and parts of Hubei.

In 220, Cao Cao's son and successor, Cao Pi, ended the Han dynasty by forcing Emperor Xian to abdicate in his favour and established the state of Cao Wei. Sun Quan agreed to submit to Wei and was granted the title of a vassal king, "King of Wu" (吳王), by Cao Pi. A year later, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and founded the state of Shu Han. In 222, Liu Bei launched a military campaign against Sun Quan to take back Jing Province and avenge Guan Yu, leading to the Battle of Xiaoting. However, Liu Bei suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of Sun Quan's general Lu Xun and was forced to retreat to Baidicheng, where he died a year later.

Liu Bei's successor, Liu Shan, and his regent, Zhuge Liang, made peace with Sun Quan later and reaffirmed their previous alliance. Sun Quan declared independence from Wei in 222, but continued to rule as "King of Wu" until 229, when he declared himself "Emperor of Wu". His legitimacy was recognised by Shu.

Sun Quan's reign

Sun Quan ruled for over 30 years and his long reign resulted in stability in southern China. During his reign, Wu engaged Wei in numerous wars, including the battles of Ruxu (222–223), Shiting (228), and Hefei (234). However, Wu never managed to gain any territory north of the Yangtze River while Wei also never succeeded in conquering the lands south of the Yangtze.

A succession struggle broke out between Sun Quan's sons in the later part of his reign — Sun Quan instated Sun He as the crown prince in 242 after his former heir apparent, Sun Deng, died in 241, but Sun He soon became involved in a rivalry with his younger brother, Sun Ba. The conflict resulted in the emergence of two rivalling factions, each supporting either Sun He or Sun Ba, in Sun Quan's imperial court. Sun Quan eventually deposed Sun He and forced Sun Ba to commit suicide, while Lu Xun and many other ministers who took either Sun He's or Sun Ba's side in the struggle met with unhappy ends. Sun Quan appointed his youngest son, Sun Liang, as the crown prince after the incident.

Reigns of Sun Liang and Sun Xiu

Sun Quan died in 252 and was succeeded by Sun Liang, with Zhuge Ke and Sun Jun serving as regents. In 253, Zhuge Ke was assassinated in a coup launched by Sun Jun, and the state power of Wu fell into Sun Jun's hands and was passed on to his cousin, Sun Chen, after his death. During Sun Liang's reign, two rebellions broke out in the Wei commandery of Shouchun (around present-day Shou County, Anhui) in 255 and 257–258. Sun Jun and Sun Chen led Wu forces to support the rebels in the first and second rebellions respectively in the hope of making some territorial gains in Wei, but both revolts were suppressed and the Wu forces retreated after suffering much losses.

Sun Liang was deposed in 258 by Sun Chen, who installed Sun Xiu, another son of Sun Quan, on the throne. Sun Xiu killed Sun Chen later in a coup with the help of Zhang Bu and Ding Feng.

Fall of Wu

Sun Xiu died of illness in 264, a year after Shu was conquered by Wei. At the time, Wu was experiencing internal turmoil because rebellions had broken out in Jiaozhi (交趾) in the south. The ministers Puyang Xing, Wan Yu and Zhang Bu decided to install Sun He's son, Sun Hao, on the throne.

In the beginning of Sun Hao's reign, the emperor reduced taxes, gave relief to the poor, and granted freedom to a large number of palace maids. However, Sun Hao gradually became more cruel and superstitious and started indulging in wine and women instead of finding ways to revive his declining state. Sun Hao's tyranny caused widespread anger and hatred towards him in Wu, but it was due to the efforts of officials such as Lu Kai and Lu Kang that Wu was able to remain relatively stable and peaceful.

In 265, Sima Yan ended the state of Cao Wei by forcing its last ruler, Cao Huan, to abdicate in his favour, and then established the Jin dynasty. In 275, Jin forces led by Du Yu, Wang Jun and others attacked Wu from six directions. Sun Hao attempted to put up resistance by sending his armies to fight the Jin invaders, but the Wu forces suffered several consecutive defeats and even the Wu chancellor, Zhang Ti, was killed in action. Seeing that Wu was doomed to fall, Sun Hao surrendered to the Jin dynasty on 31 May 280,[1] marking the end of Wu and the end of the Three Kingdoms period.

Government and military

Despite Wu and its court becoming imperial in 229, Sun Quan had kept Wu in a warlordism reflected state. When Wu was initially founded its military was dominated by famed generals who had gained their positions through prowess and pluck. These generals were celebrated for their individualism.[6]

Politics within the court were often influenced by conflicts between powerful families and individuals. Positions within the court were inherited from one generation to the next unlike the Han dynasty's bureaucracy. However, over time, the influence ultimately would move away from the central government.[7] Outside of the court, families displayed their own independent authority. Wu, at times, was to a certain extent run for the protection of particular families.[8]

Culture and economy

Shu Han imported cotton into Eastern Wu.

The culture of Wu was most solidified under the reign of Sun Quan from 229 to 252. Migrations from the north and the needed settlement from the Shanyue barbarians made it possible for the increase in manpower, agriculture, and settling the lower most parts of Wu. Along with that, river transportation became a huge factor and flourished as the Jiangnan and Zhedong canals were finished with construction. After the Battle of Xiaoting and during the invasions of Wu by Wei in the 220s, Shu was able to reestablish their trade and relationships with Wu. Shu's cotton was a great influx for Wu, and the development of shipbuilding, salt,[9] and metal industries was greatly increased.

The fact of inflation and economic problems still were in existence since the Han dynasty.[10] Sun Quan tried to start a currency of large coins manufactured by copper. He also tried to prohibit private minting. This policy was terminated in 246 due to ineffectiveness.[10][lower-alpha 1]

Eastern Wu was able to make close overseas trade with countries such as Vietnam and Cambodia.[11] Wu also traded with India and the Middle East.[12]

Eastern Wu folklore and legends

Many stories have reported martian encounters within the Wu kingdom. Evidence is identified in a story by Eastern Jin writer Gan Bao. The story is part of Gan Bao's writing called In Search of the Supernatural.[13]

The story states within the Wu kingdom, the ancients recorded an event where playing children encountered a child with a strange appearance who stood at 1.3 meters tall, was dressed in blue and possessed shining eyes.[14][15] Since the children have never seen this creature in the past, they surrounded it and asked it many questions. It replied, "I am not from the earth, but from the Mars, I saw that you are playing so happily so I came down to see you.".[16][17] The being also said, "The state of having three kingdoms standing will not last long, In the future, the world will belong to the Sima family."[18] The children, became frightened and reported this to the nearby adults. However, when the adults came to the sight, the strange being disappeared by shrinking and jumping into the air. When people lifted their heads upward to watch him, they could only happen to see a white silk cloth dragging along a long belt, flying fast towards the sky above. The event was so bizarre, nobody would try to speak of the event again.[19][20]

Civil matters

Personages with clerical or scholarly abilities had roles to play within the state, but the policies were more determined by those of military command.[21] Nevertheless, every Wu army was in need of administrative support and, according to Rafe de Crespigny, certain scholars were "recognised as practical counsellors, regardless of their fighting prowess or their ability to command troops in the field."[21]

Under the reign of Sun Quan, he needed a strong role of advisors and secretaries in order to keep his link of power in a maintained level. Sun Quan's prestige in dealing with hostiles and friendly relations called for the establishment of a controlled form of an imperial government for the empire of Wu. Sun Quan also created the opportunity for people residing within Wu to gain prestige and influence throughout the empire and the surrounding establishments with the duty of being an envoy.[21]

Following the death of Cao Pi in 226, Sun Quan strongly promoted his kingdom to focus on agriculture because the threat from Wei was lifted.[22] However, Lu Xun suggested to Sun Quan that military commanders should become involved in the colonization of land. Sun Quan quickly accepted and he, along with his sons would execute the memorial presented by Lu Xun.[23] However, in 240, Sun Quan restrained Lu Xun's idea and refocused on agricultural works, because Wu came to suffer a severe famine.[24] In 234, when Zhuge Ke was in control of affairs in the south, he strongly ignored the colonisation order and viciously ordered the agriculture factor, often starving enemies into submission.[25]

Legacy

An Eastern Wu green-glaze ceramic jar with human figures, birds, and architecture on display in the Nanjing Museum.

Under the rule of Wu, the Yangtze River Delta region, regarded in early history as a barbaric "jungle" developed into one of the commercial, cultural, and political centres of China. The achievements of Wu in the south marked the coming of Chinese civilization to the farthest southern reaches of the empire.[26]

In 230, the island of Taiwan was reached by the Chinese during the Three Kingdoms period under the reign of Sun Quan.[27] Contact with the native population and the dispatch of officials to an island named "Yizhou" (夷州) by the Wu navy might have been to Taiwan, but the location of Yizhou is open to dispute; some historians believe it was Taiwan, while others believe it was the Ryukyu Islands. Wu merchants also may have reached Southern Vietnam and Cambodia. Failed protection of Gongsun Yuan also was in existence when the latter rebelled against Wei. This was because of the waterway's difficulties. Such things cost Wu, and the achievements supposedly gained within Taiwan did not cover this problem and Sun Quan lost his vassal.[28]

Later on in the existence of Wu, the once great military was turned to an unimpressive military. It was most likely an easy task to take Hefei from Wei, but Wu could not do so. Since the 230s, this task was made harder due to the "New City", a heavily fortified castle built at Hefei by Wei.[28] One of the greatest failures to accomplish something later on in Wu's reign was during 255 and during the last few years of the 250s. When Guanqiu Jian and Wen Qin rebelled against Wei, Wu promised to help the two in Shouchun (around present-day Shou County, Anhui). However, the Wu forces never made it in time before the rebellion was quashed by Sima Shi and the Wei forces. When Zhuge Dan launched a massive full-scale rebellion, the Wu forces suffered a great defeat as they lent a great quantity of manpower to Zhuge Dan's cause. Shouchun was quickly regained by Wei under Sima Zhao's command.[28]

During the conquest of Shu by Wei in 263, Wu could not fully lend support to their allies due to a revolt in Vietnam.[29]

The decline of Wu was long in existence since the death of Lu Xun in 245 and the death of Sun Quan in 252. Sun Quan's successors could do little for the empire. Zhuge Ke was assassinated by Sun Jun in 253 after a failed invasion of Hefei following the Wu victory over an invading Wei force at Dongxing.[30] Ding Feng also ended up killing Sun Chen under orders from Sun Xiu. Corruption plagued Wu, which led to an easy conquest of Wu by the Jin dynasty in 280.

List of territories

Territories of Eastern Wu
Province Provincial capital Commandery Commandery capital No. of counties
Yang
揚		 Jianye
建業		 Danyang
丹陽		 Jianye
建業		 16
Wu
吳		 Wu County
吳縣		 10
Qichun
蘄春		 Qichun
蘄春		 2
Kuaiji
會稽		 Shanyin County
山陰縣		 10
Yuzhang
豫章		 Nanchang
南昌		 16
Lujiang
廬江		 Wan County
皖縣		 2
Luling
廬陵		 Gaochang County
高昌縣		 10
Poyang
鄱陽		 Poyang County
鄱陽縣		 9
Xindu
新都		 Shixin County
始新縣		 6
Linchuan
臨川		 Nancheng County
南城縣		 10
Linhai
臨海		 Zhang'an County
章安縣		 7
Jian'an
建安		 Jian'an County
建安縣		 9
Wuxing
吳興		 Wucheng County
烏程縣		 9
Dongyang
東陽		 Changshan County
長山縣		 9
Piling
毗陵典農校尉		 Piling County
毗陵縣		 3
South Luling
廬陵南部都尉		 Yudu County
雩都縣		 6
Jing
荊		 Jiangling
江陵		 Nan
南		 Jiangling
江陵		 9
Wuling
武陵		 Linyuan County
臨沅縣		 11
Lingling
零陵		 Quanling County
泉陵縣		 10
Guiyang
桂陽		 Chen County
郴縣		 6
Changsha
長沙		 Linxiang County
臨湘縣		 10
Wuchang[lower-alpha 2]
武昌		 Wuchang County
武昌縣		 6
Ancheng
安成		 Ancheng County
安成縣		 6
Pengze
彭澤		 Pengze County
彭澤縣		 4
Yidu
宜都		 Yidao County
夷道縣		 3
Linhe
臨賀		 Linhe County
臨賀縣		 6
Hengyang
衡陽		 Xiangnan County
湘南縣		 10
Xiangdong
湘東		 Ling County
酃縣		 6
Jianping
建平		 Wu County
巫縣		 6
Tianmen
天門		 Lüzhong County
漊中縣		 3
Zhaoling
昭陵		 Zhaoling County
昭陵縣		 5
Shi'an
始安		 Shi'an County
始安縣		 7
Shixing
始興		 Qujiang County
曲江縣		 7
Guang
廣		 Panyu
番禺		 Nanhai
南海		 Panyu County
番禺縣		 6
Cangwu
蒼梧		 Guangxin County
廣信縣		 11
Yulin
鬱林		 Bushan County
布山縣		 9
Gaoliang
高涼		 Siping County
思平縣		 3
Gaoxing
高興		 Guanghua County
廣化縣		 5
Guilin
桂林		 Wu'an County
武安縣		 6
North Hepu
合浦北部尉		 Anguang County
安廣縣		 3
Jiao
交		 Longbian
龍編		 Jiaozhi
交阯		 Longbian
龍編		 14
Rinan
日南		 Zhuwu
朱吾		 5
Jiuzhen
九真		 Xupu
胥浦		 6
Hepu
合浦		 Hepu County
合浦縣		 5
Wuping
武平		 Wuning
武寧		 7
Jiude
九德		 Jiude
九德		 6
Xinchang
新昌		 Jianing
嘉寧		 4
Zhuya
朱崖		 Xuwen County
徐聞縣		 2

List of sovereigns

Eastern Wu rulers
Temple name Posthumous name Family name (in bold) and personal name Reign Era names and their year ranges Notes
Shizu
始祖		 Emperor Wulie
武烈皇帝		 Sun Jian
孫堅		 (N/A) (N/A) Sun Jian's temple and posthumous names were granted posthumously by Sun Quan.
(N/A) Prince Huan of Changsha
長沙桓王		 Sun Ce
孫策		 (N/A) (N/A) Sun Ce's posthumous name was granted posthumously by Sun Quan.
Taizu
太祖		 Emperor Da
大皇帝		 Sun Quan
孫權		 222-252
  • Huangwu
    黃武 (222-229)
  • Huanglong
    黃龍 (229-231)
  • Jiahe
    嘉禾 (232-238)
  • Chiwu
    赤烏 (238-251)
  • Taiyuan
    太元 (251-252)
  • Shenfeng
    神鳳 (252)
 Sun Quan adopted the era name "Huangwu" in 222 after declaring independence from Wei. However, he continued ruling under the title "King of Wu" and did not proclaim himself emperor until 229.
(N/A) (N/A) Sun Liang
 252-258
  • Jianxing
    建興 (252-253)
  • Wufeng
    五鳳 (254-256)
  • Taiping
    太平 (256-258)
 Sun Liang became "Prince of Kuaiji" (會稽王) after he was dethroned by Sun Chen in 258. In 260, his successor Sun Xiu further demoted him to "Marquis of Houguan" (侯官侯).
(N/A) Emperor Jing
景皇帝		 Sun Xiu
孫休		 258-264
  • Yong'an
    永安 (258-264)
(N/A) Emperor Wen
文皇帝		 Sun He
孫和		 (N/A) (N/A) Sun He's posthumous name was granted posthumously by Sun Hao.
(N/A) Emperor Mo
末帝		 Sun Hao
孫皓		 264-280
  • Yuanxing
    元興 (264-265)
  • Ganlu
    甘露 (265-266)
  • Baoding
    寶鼎 (266-269)
  • Jianheng
    建衡 (269-271)
  • Fenghuang
    鳳凰 (272-274)
  • Tiance
    天冊 (275-276)
  • Tianxi
    天璽 (276)
  • Tianji
    天紀 (277-280)
 Sun Hao held the title of "Marquis of Wucheng" (烏程侯) before he became emperor in 264. In 280, after surrendering to the Jin dynasty, he was granted the title of "Marquis of Guiming" (歸命侯) by Sima Yan. He is also sometimes referred to as "Emperor Mo of Wu" (吳末帝), which literally means "last emperor of Wu".

Eastern Wu family tree

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See also: Eastern Wu family trees

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Gallery

See also

Notes

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References

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Bibliography

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  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Zou Jiwan (Chinese: 鄒紀萬), Zhongguo Tongshi - Weijin Nanbeichao Shi 中國通史·魏晉南北朝史, (1992).
  3. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  4. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 3.
  6. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  7. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  8. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 de Crespigny 1990, 24.
  11. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  12. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  13. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  15. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  16. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  19. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  20. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 de Crespigny 1990, 4.
  22. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 6.
  23. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 6–7.
  24. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 7.
  25. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 8.
  26. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 1.
  27. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 9–10.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 de Crespigny 1990, 10.
  29. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 10–11
  30. ↑ de Crespigny 1990, 11.


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