Gujarati phonology

Gujarati is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Indian state of Gujarat. Much of its phonology is derived from Sanskrit.

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
Close	i		u
Close-mid	e	ə	o
Open-mid	ɛ		ɔ
Open	(æ)	ɑ

• Sanskrit's phonemic vowel length has been lost. Vowels are long when nasalized or in a final syllable.
• Gujarati contrasts oral and nasal, and murmured and non-murmured vowels, except for /e/ and /o/.
• In absolute word-final position the higher and lower vowels of the /e ɛ/ and /o ɔ/ sets vary.
• /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ developed in the 15th century. Old Gujarati split into Rajasthani and Middle Gujarati.
• English loanwords are a source of /æ/.

Consonants

Consonants

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Retroflex	Postal. /Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m	n	ɳ
Plosive	voiceless	p	t̪	ʈ	tʃ	k
	voiced	b	d̪	ɖ	dʒ	ɡ
	aspirated	(pʰ)	t̪ʰ	ʈʰ	tʃʰ	kʰ
	murmured	bʱ	d̪ʱ	ɖʱ	dʒʱ	ɡʱ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s		ʃ
	voiced		(z)				ɦ
Approximant		ʋ	l	ɭ̆	j
Flap			ɾ

• The retroflex lateral flap /ɭ̆/ may be transcribed with a non-IPA symbol, though this may not display properly it some browsers.
• A fourth nasal phoneme is postulated for the phones [ɲ, ŋ] and the nasalization of a preceding vowel [Ṽ]. Before velar and palatal stops, there is variation between these; e.g. [mɑ̃ɡʋũ]~[mɑŋɡʋũ] ('ask for'), [ɦĩcko]~[ɦĩɲcko] ('swing').
• Stops occurring at first members of clusters followed by consonants other than /ɾ, j, ʋ/ are unreleased; they are optionally unreleased in final position. The absence of release entails deaspiration of voiceless stops.
• Intervocalically and with murmuring of vowels, the voiced aspirated stops /ɡʱ, d̪ʱ, bʱ/ have voiced spirant allophones [ɣ, ð, β]. Spirantization of non-palatal voiceless aspirates has been reported as well, including /pʰ/ being usually realized as [f] in the standard dialect.
• The voiced retroflex stops and the nasal /ɖʱ, ɖ, ɳ/ have flapped allophones [ɽʱ, ɽ, ɽ̃]. Intervocalically all three are flapped. /ɳ/ is unflapped before retroflex stops, and in final position varies freely between flapped and unflapped. The stops are unflapped initially, geminated, and postnasally; and flapped intervocalically, finally, and before or after other consonants.
• /ʋ/ has [v] and [w] as allophones.
• The distribution of sibilants varies over dialects and registers.
  • Some dialects only have [s], others prefer [ʃ], while another system has them non-contrasting, with [ʃ] occurring contiguous to palatal segments. Retroflex [ʂ] still appears in clusters in which it precedes another retroflex: [spəʂʈ] ('clear').
  • Some speakers maintain [z] as well for Persian and English borrowings. Persian's /z/'s have by and large been transposed to /dʒ/ and /dʒʱ/: /dʒin̪d̪ɡi/ ('life') and /tʃidʒʱ/ ('thing'). The same cannot be so easily said for English: /tʃiz/ ('cheese').
  • Lastly, a colloquial register has [s], or both [s] and [ʃ], replaced by voiceless [h]. For educated speakers speaking this register, this replacement does not extend to Sanskrit borrowings.

Phonotactical constraints include:

• /ɭ/ and /ɳ/ do not occur word-initially.
• Clusters occur initially, medially, and finally. Geminates occur only medially.
• Biconsonantal initial clusters beginning with stops have /ɾ/, /j/, /ʋ/, and /l/ as second members. In addition to these, in loans from Sanskrit the clusters /ɡn/ and /kʃ/ may occur.
  The occurrence of /ɾ/ as a second member in consonantal clusters is one of Gujarati's conservative features as a modern Indo-Aryan language. For example, languages used in Asokan inscriptions (3rd century BC) display contemporary regional variations, with words found in Gujarat's Girnar inscriptions containing clusters with /ɾ/ as the second member not having /ɾ/ in their occurrence in inscriptions elsewhere. This is maintained even to today, with Gujarati /t̪ɾ/ corresponding to Hindi /t̪/ and /t̪t̪/.
• Initially, s clusters biconsonantally with /ɾ, j, ʋ, n, m/, and non-palatal voiceless stops.
• Triconsonantal initial clusters include /st̪ɾ, spɾ, smɾ/ - most of which occur in borrowings.
• Geminates were previously treated as long consonants, but they are better analyzed as clusters of two identical segments. Two proofs for this:
  • The u in geminated uccār "pronunciation" sounds more like the one in clustered udgār ('utterance') than the one in shortened ucāṭ ('anxiety').
  • Geminates behave towards (that is, disallow) [ə]-deletion like clusters do.

Gemination can serve as intensification. In some adjectives and adverbs, a singular consonant before the agreement vowel can be doubled for intensification. #VCũ → #VCCũ.

big	[moʈũ]	[moʈʈũ]	big
straight	[sid̪ʱũ]	[sid̪d̪ʱũ]	straight
considerably	[kʰɑsũ]	[kʰɑssũ]	considerably

Stress

The matter of stress is not quite clear:

• Stress is on the first syllable except when it doesn't have /a/ and the second syllable does.
• Stress is barely perceptible.
• Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable of a word, however, if the penultimate vowel in a word with more than two syllables is schwa, stress falls on the preceding syllable.

ə-deletion

Schwa-deletion, along with a-reduction and [ʋ]-insertion, is a phonological process at work in the combination of morphemes. It is a common feature among Indo-Aryan languages, referring to the deletion of a stem's final syllable's /ə/ before a suffix starting with a vowel.

This does not apply for monosyllabic stems and consonant clusters. So, better put, #VCəC + V# → #VCCV#. It also doesn't apply when the addition is an o plural marker (see Gujarati grammar#Nouns) or e as an ergative case marker (see Gujarati grammar#Postpositions). It sometimes doesn't apply for e as a locative marker.

Stem			Suffix		Suffixed Stem		C/V	Del	Notes
verb root	[keɭəʋ]	educate	[iʃ]	1st person singular, future	[keɭʋiʃ]	will educate	CVCəC + VC → CVCCVC	Yes	Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (verbal declension).
	[səmədʒ]	understand	[jɑ]	masculine plural, perfective	[səmdʒjɑ]	understood	CVCəC + CV → CVCCCV		Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a semi-vowel (verbal declension).
	[ut̪əɾ]	descend	[t̪o]	masculine singular, imperfective	[ut̪əɾt̪o]	descending	VCəC + CV → VCəCCV	No	Suffix starting with a consonant.
	[t̪əɾ]	swim, float	[ɛ]	2nd person singular, present	[t̪əɾɛ]	swimming, floating	CəC + V → CəCV		Monosyllabic.
	[ʋəɾɳəʋ]	describe	[i]	feminine, perfective	[ʋəɾɳəʋi]	described	CVCCəC + VC → CVCCəCVC		Consonant cluster.
	[ɑɭoʈ]	wallow, roll	[iʃũ]	1st person plural, future	[ɑɭoʈiʃũ]	will wallow, roll	VCoC + VCV → VCoCVCV		Non-ə.
noun	[ɑɭəs]	laziness	[ũ]	adjectival marker	[ɑɭsũ]	lazy	VCəC + V → VCCV	Yes	Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (adjectival marking).
	[ʋəkʰət̪]	time	[e]	locative marker	[ʋəkt̪e]	at (the) time	CVCəC + V → CVCCV		Sometimes yes — e as a locative marker.
	[d̪iʋəs]	day			[d̪iʋəse]	on (the) day	CVCəC + V → CVCəCV	No	Sometimes no — e as a locative marker.
	[ɾəmət̪]	game	[o]	plural marker	[ɾəmət̪o]	games	CVCəC + V → CVCəCV		Plural o number marker suffix.
adjective	[ɡəɾəm]	hot	[i]	noun marker	[ɡəɾmi]	heat	CVCəC + V → CVCCV	Yes	Polysyllabic stem with /ə/ in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (noun marking).

ɑ-reduction

A stem's final syllable's /ɑ/ will reduce to /ə/ before a suffix starting with /ɑ/. #ɑC(C) + ɑ# → #eC(C)ɑ#. This can be seen in the derivation of nouns from adjective stems, and in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.

Stem		Suffix	Suffixed Stem			Red
cut	[kɑp]	[ɑ]	[kəpɑ]	be cut	Passive	Yes
		[ɑʋ]	[kəpɑʋ]	cause to cut	Causative
cause to cut	[kəpɑʋ]	[ɑ]	[kəpɑʋɑ]	cause to be cut	Causative Passive	No1
		[ɖɑʋ]	[kəpɑʋɖɑʋ]	cause to cause to cut	Double Causative
use	[ʋɑpəɾ]	[ɑ]	[ʋəpɾɑ]2	be used	Passive	Yes
long	[lɑmb]	[ɑi]	[ləmbɑi]	length	Noun

1. It doesn't happen a second time.
2. It can take place after an ə-deletion. #ɑCəC + ɑ# → #əCCɑ#.

[ʋ]-insertion

Between a stem ending in a vowel and its suffix starting with a vowel, a [ʋ] is inserted. #V + V# → #VʋV#. This can be seen in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.

Stem		Suffix	Suffixed Stem
see	[dʒo]	[ɑ]	[dʒoʋɑ]	be seen
sing	[ɡɑ]	[ɑɽ]	[ɡəʋɑɽ]	cause to sing

The second example shows an ɑ-reduction as well.

ə-insertion

ə finds itself inserted between the emphatic particle /dʒ/ and consonant-terminating words it postpositions.

one	[ek]	[ekədʒ]	one
that	[e]	[edʒ]	that

Murmur

/ɦ/ serves as a source for murmur, of which there are three rules:

Rule		Formal1	Casual	English
1	Word-initial ɦV → V̤2	[ɦəʋe]	[ə̤ʋe]	now
		[ɦɑɽkũ]	[ɑ̤ɽkũ]	bone
2	əɦVnon-high → V̤non-high, more open	[səɦelũ]	[sɛ̤lũ]	easy
		[bəɦoɭũ]	[bɔ̤ɭũ]	large
		[d̪əɦɑɽo]	[d̪a̤ɽo]3	day
3	ə/aɦVhigh → ə̤/ɑ̤ (glide)	[ɾəɦi]	[ɾə̤j]	stayed
		[bəɦu]	[bə̤ʋ]	very

¹ Gujarati spelling reflects this mode. The script has no direct notation for murmur.

² Rule 1 creates allomorphs for nouns. For example, /ɦəd̪/ ('limit') by itself can be [ə̤d̪], but can only be [ɦəd̪] in /beɦəd̪/ ('limitless').

³ More open.

The table below compares declensions of the verbs [kəɾʋũ] ('to do') and [kɛ̤ʋũ] ('to say'). The former follows the regular pattern of the stable root /kəɾ/ serving as a point for characteristic suffixations. The latter, on the other hand, is deviant and irregular in this respect.

Infinitive	Perfective	Imperative	1sg. Future
[kəɾʋũ]	[kəɾjũ]	[kəɾo]	[kəɾiʃ]
[kɛ̤ʋũ]	[kəɦjũ]	[kɔ̤]	[kə̤jʃ]

Fortunately the [kɛ̤ʋũ] situation can be explained through murmur. If to a formal or historical root of /kəɦe/ these rules are considered then predicted, explained, and made regular is the irregularity that is [kɛ̤ʋũ] (romanized as kahevũ).

Thus below are the declensions of [kɛ̤ʋũ] /ɦ/-possessing, murmur-eliciting root /kəɦe/, this time with the application of the murmur rules on the root shown, also to which a preceding rule must be taken into account:

0. A final root vowel gets deleted before a suffix starting with a non-consonant.

Rule	Infinitive	Perfective	Imperative	1sg. Future
	[kəɦe-ʋũ]	[kəɦe-jũ]	[kəɦe-o]	[kəɦe-iʃ]
0		[kəɦ-jũ]	[kəɦ-o]	[kəɦ-iʃ]
2	[kɛ̤-ʋũ]		[kɔ̤]
3				[kə̤-jʃ]
→	[kɛ̤ʋũ]	[kəɦjũ]	[kɔ̤]	[kə̤jʃ]

However, in the end not all instances of /ɦ/ become murmured and not all murmur comes from instances of /ɦ/.

One other predictable source for murmur is voiced aspirated stops. A clear vowel followed by a voiced aspirated stop can vary with a pair gaining murmur and losing aspiration: #VCʱ ←→ #V̤C.

Bibliography

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