Leonardo Torres Quevedo

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In this Spanish name, the family name is Torres.
Leonardo Torres Quevedo
File:Quevedo 1917.jpg
Torres in 1917
Born Leonardo Torres Quevedo
(1852-12-28)28 December 1852
Molledo, Spain
Died Script error: The function "death_date_and_age" does not exist.
Madrid, Spain
Nationality Spanish
Education Official School of the Corps of Civil Engineers
Occupation Inventor, computer scientist, engineer, Esperantist
Years active 1876-1930
Known for Introduce Floating-point arithmetic
El Ajedrecista
Telekino (Radio control)
Analytical machine
Astra-Torres airship
Whirlpool Aero Car
Awards Civil Order of Alfonso XII (1906)[1]
Echegaray Medal (1916)
Order of Charles III (1921)[2]
Commander of the Legion of Honour (1922)
Honorary doctorate University of Paris (1923)
Seat N of the Royal Spanish Academy
In office
31 October 1920 – 18 December 1936
Preceded by Benito Pérez Galdós
Succeeded by Manuel Machado
Foreign Associate of the French Academy of Sciences
In office
27 June 1927 – 18 December 1936
Signature Leonardo Torres Quevedo's signature

Leonardo Torres Quevedo (Spanish: [le.oˈnardo ˈtores keˈβeðo]; 28 December 1852 – 18 December 1936) was a Spanish civil engineer, computer scientist, and inventor. He made significant contributions in different fields of engineering, from computing, where he was a pioneer in proposing a form of floating-point, to the development of radio control with his Telekine, in which he laid down modern wireless remote-control operation principles.[3] He invented El Ajedrecista, a chess automaton[4][5] that demonstrated the capability of machines to be programmed to follow specified rules (heuristics),[6] and theorized about the behavior of automata[7] and analogue calculating machines, building several for the resolution of some types of algebraic equations.[8] In other areas, Torres designed the three-lobed non-rigid Astra-Torres airship that was used by the Allied Powers during World War I, and the Whirlpool Aero Car, an innovative cable car located in Niagara Falls. He was also a noted speaker of Esperanto.[9]

Biography

Torres was born on 28 December 1852, on the Feast of the Holy Innocents, in Santa Cruz de Iguña, Cantabria, Spain. His father, Luis Torres Vildósola y Urquijo, was a civil engineer in Bilbao, where he worked as a railway engineer. His mother was Valentina de Quevedo y Maza. The family resided for the most part in Bilbao, although they also spent long periods in his mother's family home in Cantabria's mountain region. During his childhood, he spent long periods of time separated from his parents due to work trips. Therefore, he was cared for by the ladies of Barrenechea, relatives of his father, who declared him heir to their property, which facilitated his future independence.[10] He studied high school in Bilbao and later went to Paris, to the College of the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine, to complete studies for two years (1868 and 1869).[11]

File:El eminente sabio español Leonardo Torres Quevedo, de Franzen.jpg
Leonardo Torres Quevedo by Christian Franzen in the magazine La Ilustración Española y Americana, 15 March 1916.

In 1870, his father was transferred, bringing his family to Madrid. The same year, Torres began his higher studies in the Official School of the Corps of Civil Engineers. He temporarily suspended his studies in 1873 to volunteer for the defense of Bilbao, which had been surrounded by Carlist troops during the Third Carlist War. Once the siege of Bilbao was lifted in 1874, he returned to Madrid and completed his studies in 1876, graduating fourth in his class. He began his career with the same train company for which his father had worked, but he immediately set out on a long trip through Europe visiting Italy, France and Switzerland, to know the scientific and technical advances of the day, especially in the incipient area of electricity.[12]

Upon returning to Spain, he took up residence in Santander where he financed his own work and began a study and investigation that he never abandoned. In 1885 he married Luz Polanco y Navarro in Portolín, with whom he had eight children (Leonardo and Julia, who died young, Luz, Valentina, Luisa, Gonzalo, Leonardo and Fernando).[13] In 1889 he moved to Madrid and became involved in that city's cultural life. In 1901 he entered the Royal Academy of Exact Physical and Natural Sciences in Madrid, of which entity he was president between 1928 and 1934. From the work he carried out in these years, the Athenæum of Madrid created the Laboratory of Applied Mechanics (later on Automatics) in 1907, of which Torres was named director.[14] The Laboratory dedicated itself to the manufacture of scientific instruments. Among the work of the Laboratory, the magnetograph of Gonzalo Brañas, the microtome of Ramón y Cajal and the X-ray spectrograph of Blas Cabrera were notable.[15]

In 1910 he traveled to Argentina with the Infanta Isabel to propose, at the Fourth Pan-American Conference, the constitution of the Hispano-American Union of Scientific Biography and Technology. In 1926 appeared the first issue of a Spanish-American Technological Dictionary.[16][17]

File:Torres Quevedo recepecion rac 2.jpg
Torres, as a newly admitted member of the Royal Spanish Academy, seen here with some of his fellow academicians following his admission ceremony, 31 October 1920.

In 1916 King Alfonso XIII of Spain bestowed the Echegaray Medal upon him;[18] and in 1918, he declined the offer of the position of Minister of Development. In 1920, he was admitted to the Royal Spanish Academy, to fill the seat vacated by the death of Benito Pérez Galdós,[19] and became a member of the department of Mechanics of the Paris Academy of Science. That same year he was elected president of the Spanish Mathematical Society, a position he held until 1924. In 1923 the Sorbonne named him an Honorary Doctor[20] and, in 1927, he was named one of the twelve foreign associate members of the French Academy.[21]

In the early 1900s, Torres learned the international language Esperanto, and was an advocate of the language throughout his life.[22] From 1922 to 1926, he participated in the work of the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations.[23]

Torres died in Madrid, in the heat of the Spanish Civil War, on 18 December 1936, ten days before his eighty-fourth birthday.[24]

Career

Cableways

Torres' experimentation in the field of cableways and cable cars began very early during his residence in the town of his birth, Molledo. There, in 1887, he constructed the first cableway to span a depression of some 40 metres. The cableway was some 200 metres across and was pulled by a pair of cows, with one log seat.[25] This experiment was the basis for his first patent application, which he sought between that year and 1889: an aerial cable car with multiple cables, with which it obtained a level of safety suitable for the transport of people, not only cargo. Later, he constructed the cableway of the Río León,[26] of greater speed and already with a motor, but which continued to be used solely for the transport of materials, not of people.

File:Grupo de personas en el Teleférico de Ulia (1 de 2) - Fondo Car-Kutxa Fototeka.jpg
Cable car at the mount Ulía, inaugurated in 1907.

In 1890 he presented his cableway in Switzerland, a country very interested in that form of transport owing to its geography and which was already starting to use cable cars for bulk transport, but Torres' project was dismissed, receiving some ironic commentary from the Swiss press. In 1907, Torres constructed the first cableway suitable for the public transportation of people, in the mount Ulía region in San Sebastián.[27][28][29][30] The problem of safety was solved by means of an ingenious system of multiple support cables. The resulting design was very strong and perfectly resisted the failure of one of the support cables. The execution of the project was the responsibility of the Society of Engineering Studies and Works of Bilbao. Since then, other cable cars were built in Chamonix, Bolzano, Grindelwald, Rio de Janeiro and elsewhere.[31]

File:(2007) Whirlpool Spanish AeroCar (3572828256).jpg
The Niagara Aerocar.

But it is doubtless the Spanish Aerocar in Niagara Falls in Canada which has gained the greatest fame in this area of activity, although from a scientific point of view it was not the most important. The cableway of 550 meters in length is an aerial cable car that spans the whirlpool in the Niagara Gorge on the Canadian side. It travels at about 7.2 km/h (120m/min). The load per cable via is nine tons, with a safety coefficient of the cables of 4.6.[32] It was constructed between 1914 and 1916, a Spanish project from beginning to end: devised by a Spaniard and constructed by a Spanish company with Spanish capital (The Niagara Spanish Aerocar Co. Limited); a bronze plaque, located on a monolith at the entrance of the access station recalls this fact: Spanish aerial ferry of the Niagara. Leonardo Quevedo Torres (1852–1936). It was inaugurated in tests on 15 February 1916 and was officially inaugurated on 8 August 1916, opening to the public the following day; the cableway, with small modifications, continues to run to this day, with no accidents worthy of mention, constituting a popular tourist and cinematic attraction.[33]

Analogue calculating machines

File:Algebrica.JPG
Torres' Algebraic Machine

Since the middle of the 19th century, several mechanical devices were known, from integrators, multipliers, to the Analytical engine of Charles Babbage. The first articles published by Torres were precisely to describe his algebraic machines.[34] In 1893, he presented the Memory about algebraic machines at the Academy of Exact Physical and Natural Sciences of Spain. This work was commented in a report by Eduardo Saavedra in 1894 and published in the Revista de Obras Públicas. Torres developed a first model of the machine, and Saavedra recommended that the final project of the device be financed.[35] Torres' calculating machine was considered in its time as an extraordinary event in the course of Spanish scientific production. In 1895 the machines were presented at a Congress in Bordeaux.[36] Later on, in 1900, he presented a more detailed work, Machines á calculer (calculating machines) at the Paris Academy of Sciences.[37][38] The Commission, informed favorably by Marcel Deprez, Henri Poincaré and Paul Appell, asked the Academy for its publication.[39] These machines examined mathematical and physical analogies that underlay analogue calculation or continuous quantities, and how to establish mechanically the relationships between them, expressed in mathematical formulae. The study included complex variables and used the logarithmic scale. From a practical standpoint, it showed that mechanisms such as turning disks could be used endlessly with precision, so that changes in variables were limited in both directions.[40][41]

File:Husillo sinfin.JPG
Fusee sans fin (endless spindle)

On the practical side, Torres built a whole series of analogue calculating machines, all mechanical. These machines used certain elements known as arithmophores which consisted of a moving part and an index that made it possible to read the quantity according to the position shown thereon.[42] The aforesaid moving part was a graduated disk or a drum turning on an axis. The angular movements were proportional to the logarithms of the magnitudes to be represented. Using a number of such elements, Torres developed a machine that could solve algebraic equations, even one with eight terms, finding the roots, including the complex ones, with a precision of thousandths. One part of this machine, called an "endless spindle" ("fusee sans fin")[43] and consisting of great mechanical complexity, allowed the mechanical expression of the relation y=\log(10^x+1), with the aim of extracting the logarithm of a sum as a sum of logarithms,[44] the same technique which is the basis of the modern electronic Logarithmic Number System. Since an analogue machine was being used, the variable could be of any value (not only integer values). With a polynomial equation, the wheels representing the unknown rotate, and the result gives the values of the sum of the variables. When this sum coincides with the value of the second member, the wheel of the unknown shows a root.

With the intention of demonstrating them, Torres also built a machine for solving a second-order equation with complex coefficients, and an integrator. Torres' machines are kept in the museum at the ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos of the Technical University of Madrid (UPM).[45]

Aerostatics

Airship Astra-Torres built in 1911

In 1902, Torres presented to the Science Academies of Madrid and Paris the project of a new type of dirigible that would solve the serious problem of suspending the gondola by including an internal frame of flexible cables that would give the airship rigidity by way of internal pressure.[46]

In 1904, he was appointed director of the Center for Aeronautical Testing, "for the technical and experimental study of the air navigation problem and the management of remote engine maneuvers".[47]

File:Torres Quevedo y su dirigible.png
Torres with a model of his airship in 1913

In 1905, with the help of Alfredo Kindelán, Torres directed the construction of the first Spanish dirigible in the Army Military Aerostatics Service, located in Guadalajara. Once the construction was successfully completed in 1908, the new airship, which received the name of Torres Quevedo, carried out several test flights.[48] One of the most important innovations in this airship was to make the balloon three-lobed, so that safety was increased. As a result, a collaboration began between Torres and the French company Astra, which managed to buy the patent with a cession of rights extended to all countries except Spain, in order to make possible the construction of the dirigible in its country. So, in 1911, the construction of dirigibles known as the Astra-Torres airships was begun. The distinctive three-lobed design was widely used during the First World War by the Entente powers for diverse tasks, principally convoy protection and anti-submarine warfare. The success during the war even drew the attention of the Imperial Japanese Navy, who acquired a model in 1922.[49] Despire the patent expired that year, several airships continued to be built with ideas inherited from this non-rigid design.[50]

File:Aviation in Britain Before the First World War RAE-O198.jpg
The Astra-Torres airship attached to a portable mooring post.

To find a resolution to the slew of problems faced by airship engineers in docking dirigibles, Torres also drew up designs for a ‘docking station’ and made alterations to airship design. In 1910, Torres proposed the idea of attaching an airships nose to a mooring mast and allowing the airship to weathervane with changes of wind direction. The use of a metal column erected on the ground, the top of which the bow or stem would be directly attached to (by a cable) would allow a dirigible to be moored at any time, in the open, regardless of wind speeds. Additionally, Torres' design called for the improvement and accessibility of temporary landing sites, where airships were to be moored for the purpose of disembarkation of passengers. The final patent was presented in February 1911.[51]

In 1919, Torres designed, based on a proposal of the engineer Emilio Herrera Linares, a transatlantic dirigible, which was named Hispania, aiming to claim the honor of the first transatlantic flight for Spain. Owing to financial problems, the project was delayed and it was the Britons John Alcock and Arthur Brown who crossed the Atlantic non-stop from Newfoundland to Ireland in a Vickers Vimy twin-engine plane, in sixteen hours and twelve minutes.[52][53]

Radio control: the Telekino

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Telekino: transmitter (top) and receiver (bottom).

Torres was a pioneer in the field of remote control. In 1903, he presented the Telekino at the Paris Academy of Science, with an article and making an experimental demonstration.[54] Between 1902 and 1903 he obtained a patent in France, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States. It was intended as a way of testing a dirigible of his own design without risking human lives. Unlike previous “on/off” radio control mechanisms, Torres developed a system for controlling any mechanical or electrical device with multiple states of operation.[55] The transmitter of the Telekino could send up to 19 different commands to the receiver, which was able to interpret and execute the orders implicit in the codes transmitted by electromagnetic waves.[56]

In 1905 Torres chose to conduct initial Telekino testing in an electric three-wheeled land vehicle in the Beti Jai fronton of Madrid.[57] The same year, he tested a second model of the Telekino located in a boat in the pond of the Casa de Campo in Madrid. The final setting for the Telekino tests was the Bilbao Abra. A first experiment with the Telekino remotely governing the maneuvers of the electric boat Vizcaya was carried out from the terrace of the Club Marítimo del Abra, and with the assistance of the President of the Provincial Council and other authorities.[58] On 25 September 1906, in the presence of the king Alfonso XIII and before a great crowd, Torres successfully demonstrated the invention in the port of Bilbao, guiding the boat Vizcaya from the shore with people on board. Later, he would try to apply the Telekino to projectiles and torpedoes but had to abandon the project for lack of financing.[59]

Chess automaton: El Ajedrecista

File:Ajedrecista primero1.JPG
"El Ajedrecista" #1 (The Chessplayer), complete view.

In early 1910, Torres began to construct a chess automaton he dubbed El Ajedrecista (The Chessplayer). As opposed to the The Turk and Ajeeb, El Ajedrecista had a true integrated automation and could automatically play a king and rook endgame against the king from any position, without any human intervention[60] The automaton does not deliver checkmate in the minimum number of moves, nor always within the 50 moves allotted by the fifty-move rule, because of the simple algorithm that calculates the moves. It did, however, checkmate the opponent every time.[61] If an illegal move was made by the opposite player, the automaton would signal it by turning on a light. If the opposing player made three illegal moves, the automaton would stop playing. The device could be considered the first computer game in history.[62]

File:Ajedrecista segundo1.JPG
"El Ajedrecista" #2, interior view.

It created great excitement when it made its debut, at the University of Paris in 1914.[63] It was widely mentioned in a Scientific American supplement as "Torres and His Remarkable Automatic Devices", on November 6, 1915.[64] A second version was constructed by his son Gonzalo under his direction, and was presented in Paris in 1922. It was more elegant and more technically perfected. The mechanical arms were replaced for electromagnets to move pieces and included a gramophone which announced checkmates.[65] In 1951, El Ajedrecista defeated Savielly Tartakower at the Paris Cybernetic Congress, being the first Grandmaster to lose against a machine.[66]

Analytical machines

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It has been commonly assumed (see Metropolis and Worlton 1980) that Charles Babbage’s work on a mechanical digital program-controlled computer, which he started in 1835 and pursued off and on until his death in 1871, had been completely forgotten and was only belatedly recognized as a forerunner to the modern digital computer. Ludgate, Torres Quevedo, and Bush give the lie to this belief, and all made fascinating contributions that deserve to be better known.

— Brian Randell, presentation at MIT (1980), printed in Annals of the History of Computing, IEEE (October 1982)[67]
Torres Quevedo's 1920 Electromechanical Arithmometer, which used a remote typewriter to send commands to an electromechanical calculator and to print its results once computed.

Torres demonstrated twice, in 1914 and in 1920, that all of the cogwheel mechanisms of a calculating machine like that of Babbage could be implemented using electromechanical parts. His 1914 analytical machine used a small memory built with electromagnets, capable of evaluating p × q — b. In 1920, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the invention of the arithmometer, he presented in Paris the Electromechanical Arithmometer, which consisted of an arithmetic unit connected to a (possibly remote) typewriter, on which commands could be typed and the results printed automatically[67] (e.g. "532 × 257" and "=" from the typewriter). This calculator was not programmable, but was able to print the numerical value of the answer.[68]. From the user interface point of view, this machine can be regarded as the predecessor of current computers that use a keyboard as an input interface. In terms of usage, remote calculation by extension of electric wires is also assumed,[68] and it is considered to be a rudimentary system such as the current online system that uses communication lines. Furthermore, in a 1920 paper on electromechanical arithmometers, the necessity of representing continuous numbers as finite discrete values ​​for processing and judgment in several automatic machines has been pointed out.[68] This corresponds to current digital processing. Torres had many ideas that were very advanced at the time.

Torres' 1913 paper, "Essays on Automatics," introduced the idea of floating point arithmetic, which historian Randell says was described "almost casually,"[67] apparently without recognizing the significance of the discovery. The paper contains a complete design (albeit one that Torres regarded as theoretical rather than practical) for a machine capable of calculating completely automatically the value of the formula a^x(y - z)^2, for a sequence of sets of values of the variables involved. It demonstrates cunning electromechanical gadgets for storing decimal digits, for performing arithmetic operations using built-in function tables, and for comparing the values of two quantities. The whole machine was to be controlled from a read-only program (complete with provisions for conditional branching), represented by a pattern of conducting areas mounted around the surface of a rotating cylinder. The paper ends with a comparison of the advantages of electromechanical devices that were all that were available to Babbage. It establishes that Torres would have been quite capable of building a general-purpose electromechanical computer more than 20 years ahead of its time, had the practical need, motivation, and financing been present.[69]

Torres also proposed a machine that acts intelligently like a human or replaces a human, and is equivalent to various current automated control machines. This machine makes "judgments" using sensors that capture information from the outside, parts that manipulate the outside world such as arms, power sources such as batteries and air pressure, and, most importantly, captures current and past information. It is defined as a machine that can control its reactions like a living thing according to external information and adapt to changes in the environment by changing its behavior.[70][71][72]

Other inventions and later career

File:Joaquín Sorolla y Bastida - Leonardo Torres Quevedo - A1945 - Hispanic Society of America.jpg
Leonardo Torres Quevedo (1917). Portrait by Joaquín Sorolla at the Hispanic Society of America in New York City.

In addition to the aforementioned inventions, Torres also designed a Coordinate Indicator, a Cable-Launcher, a Device for taking speeches without a stenographer, a Motion Synthesizer, an Automatic Scale, and a new type of aircraft carrier named Camp-Vessel.[73] In 1918 he built in Bilbao an innovative catamaran (conceived as a possible trimaran or polymaran) with a metal hull which received the name of Binave.[74][75]

In the last years of his life, Torres turned his attention to the field of pedagogy, to investigate those elements or machines that could help educators in their task. From 1922 to 1930 he made improvements on typewriters,[76] marginal pagination of manuals, and others such as the Projectable Pointer,[77] and the Teaching Projector.[78] The Projectable Pointer is based on the shadow produced by an opaque body that moves close to the projected plate, being this shadow used as a pointer. To do this, he designed an articulated system that allowed the speaker to move a point or points next to the projection plate, at will, which made it possible to mark the areas of interest on the transparency. The Teaching Projector improved the way slides were placed on glass plates for projection.

Tributes

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The wise Spanish engineer Torres Quevedo - today a foreign associate of our Academy of Sciences - who is perhaps the most prodigious inventor of our time, at least in terms of mechanisms, has not afraid to tackle Babbage's problem in turn.

What prospects do such marvels open on the possibilities of the future as regards the reduction to a purely mechanical process of any operation obeying mathematical rules!" In this field, the way was opened, nearly three centuries ago, by the genius of Pascal; in recent times, the genius of Torres Quevedo has succeeded in making it penetrate into regions where one would never have dared to think a priori that it could have access.

— Maurice d'Ocagne, Hommes et choses de science, 1930[79]
File:ITEFI, Madrid.jpg
Institute of Physical and Information Technologies “Leonardo Torres Quevedo“ (ITEFI), Madrid.

After Torres passed away in 1936, the distressing circumstances that Spain was going during the Civil War meant that his death would go somewhat unnoticed. However, such personalities as the French mathematician Maurice d'Ocagne praised his great scientific and research work, giving conferences in Paris and Brussels.[80]

File:Milestone Plaque.jpg
IEEE Milestone Plaque dedicated to the Telekino of Torres Quevedo at the Technical University of Madrid.

In 1953 took place in Spain the commemorative acts of the Centenary of his birth, with the intervention of high-ranking academic, scientific and university personalities from the country and abroad. In the years following his death, Torres was not forgotten, creating an Institute with his name dedicated to "designing and manufacturing instruments and investigating mechanical, electrical and electronic problems", which was the germ of the current Institute of Physical and Information Technologies "Leonardo Torres Quevedo" (ITEFI) in Madrid.[81]

In 2007, the prestigious Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) dedicated a Milestone in Electrical Engineering and Computing[82] to his Telekino, based on the research work developed at Technical University of Madrid by Prof. Antonio Pérez Yuste, who was the driving force behind the Milestone nomination.

On 28 December 2012, Google celebrated his 160th birthday with a Google Doodle.[83]

Distinctions

File:Echegaray y Torres Quevedo 1916.jpg
Torres receiving the Echegaray Medal at the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences in 1916.
  • Grand Cross of the Civil Order of Alfonso XII (1906)
  • Echegaray Medal (1916)
  • Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (1921)
  • Commander of the Legion of Honour (1922)
  • Honorary doctorate by the University of Paris (1923)

See also

File:Torres quevedo.jpg
Statue of Leonardo Torres Quevedo at the Museum of Aeronautics and Astronautics in Madrid.

References

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  3. ↑ El 7 de noviembre es para WIRED un aniversario importante: la demostración del Telekino en el Abra de Bilbao en 1905.
  4. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ Gizycki, Jerzy (1972). A History of Chess. London: Abbey Library.
  6. ↑ Leonardo Torres Quevedo//Encyclopædia Britannica
  7. ↑ Torres Quevedo. L. (1915). "Essais sur l'Automatique - Sa définition. Etendue théorique de ses applications", Revue Génerale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées, vol. 2, pp. 601–611.
  8. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  12. ↑ González Redondo, Francisco A.; González Redondo, Amor (1994). Actas del I Simposio «Leonardo Torres Quevedo: su vida, su tiempo, su obra». Amigos de la Cultura Científica. ISBN 84-87635-11-3.
  13. ↑ González Redondo, Francisco A.; González Redondo, Amor (1994). Actas del I Simposio «Leonardo Torres Quevedo: su vida, su tiempo, su obra». Amigos de la Cultura Científica. ISBN 84-87635-11-3.
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  31. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Whirlpool Aero Car – Niagara Parks, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada
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  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. en la Universidad Politécnica de Madrid
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  54. ↑ Sarkar 2006, p. 97
  55. ↑ A. P. Yuste, M. S. Palma. The First Wireless Remote-Control: the Telekine of Torres Quevedo,(pdf) Conf. on History of Electronics, 2004.
  56. ↑ H. R. Everett, Unmanned Systems of World Wars I and II, MIT Press - 2015, pages 91-95
  57. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  58. ↑ El Nervión. Torres-Quevedo y el Telekino en el Abra de Bilbao (1905). 8 de Noviembre de 1905.
  59. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  60. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  61. ↑ Atkinson, George W. (1998). Chess and machine intuition. Intellect Books, pp. 21-22. ISBN 1-871516-44-7
  62. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  63. ↑ Ramón Jiménez, "The Rook Endgame Machine of Torres y Quevedo".
  64. ↑ Torres and His Remarkable Automatic Devices. Issue 2079, Scientific American Suppl., 1915.
  65. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  66. ↑ Hooper & Whyld 1992 page 22. The Oxford Companion to Chess (2nd ed.). England: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-866164-9.
  67. ↑ 67.0 67.1 67.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 B. Randell. Electromechanical Calculating Machine, The Origins of Digital Computers, pp.109-120, 1982.
  69. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  70. ↑ L. Torres Quevedo. Ensayos sobre Automática – Su definicion. Extension teórica de sus aplicaciones, Revista de la Academia de Ciencias Exacta, Revista 12, pp. 391–418, 1913.
  71. ↑ B. Randell. Essays on Automatics, The Origins of Digital Computers, pp. 89–107, 1982.
  72. ↑ McCorduck 2004, pp. 59–60
  73. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  74. ↑ Patentes de invención de Don Leonardo Torres Quevedo, España Registro de la Propiedad Industrial, 1988. ISBN 84-86857-50-3
  75. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  76. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  77. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  78. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  79. ↑ Maurice d'Ocagne, Hommes et choses de science: Propos familiers, Paris, Librairie Vuibert, pp. 28–35 (1930).
  80. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  81. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  82. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  83. ↑ Video on YouTube

Further reading

Biographical

  • Chase, George C., "History of Mechanical Computing Machinery", Ann. Hist.Comp., Vol. 2, No. 3, 1980, pp. 198-226.
  • Eames, Charles, and Ray Eames, A Computer Perspective, Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1973, pp. 66-68.
  • Randell, Brian, "From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush", Ann. Hist. Comp., Vol. 4, No. 4, 1982, pp. 327-341.
  • Rodriguez Alcalde, L., Torres Quevedo y la Cibernetica, Ediciones Cid., Madrid, 1966.
  • Rodriguez Alcalde, L., Biografia de D. Leonardo Torres Quevedo, Institucion Cultural de Cantabria, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Duputacion Provicial de Santander, Madrid, 1974.
  • Santesmases, J.G., Obra e Inventos de Torres Quevedo, Instituto de España, Madrid, 1980.

Significant Publications

  • Torres y Quevedo, "Arithmometre Electromechanique," Bull. de la Societe d Encouragement for l'Industrie Nationale, Vol. 119, 1920, pp. 588-99, reprinted in Randell, Brian, Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1982.

External links

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