M25 motorway

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M25 motorway shield

M25 motorway
M25 is highlighted in dark blue
Route information
Part of Tabliczka E15.svg E15 Tabliczka E30.svg E30
Length: 117 mi (188 km)
Existed: 1975 – present
History: Completed 1975–86
Major junctions
Orbital around London
  Junction 3.svg UK-Motorway-M20.svg
J3 → M20 motorway
Junction 5.svg UK-Motorway-M26.svg
J5 → M26 motorway
Junction 7.svg UK-Motorway-M23.svg
J7 → M23 motorway Junction 8
Junction 12.svg UK-Motorway-M3.svg
J12 → M3 motorway Junction 2
Junction 15.svg UK-Motorway-M4.svg
J15 → M4 motorway Junction 4B
Junction 16.svg 1000x20px
J16 → M40 motorway Junction 1A
Junction 21.svg UK-Motorway-M1.svg
J21 → M1 motorway Junction 6A
Junction 23.svg UK-Motorway-A1 (M).svg
J23 → A1(M) motorway Junction 1
Junction 27.svg UK-Motorway-M11.svg
J27 → M11 motorway Junction 6
Location
Primary
destinations:		 London, Dartford, Sevenoaks, Reigate, Leatherhead, Staines, Heathrow 20 airtransportation.svg, Rickmansworth, Watford, St Albans, Barnet, Enfield, Loughton, Brentwood, Romford, Thurrock
Road network

The M25 or London Orbital Motorway is a 117-mile (188 km) motorway that almost encircles Greater London, England (with the exception of North Ockendon), in the United Kingdom. A narrower concept was first mooted in the 1960s as part of the plan to build four ring roads around London. A few sections, based on the abandoned London Ringways plan, were constructed in the early 1970s and it was completed in 1986.

It is one of the busiest of the British motorway network: 196,000 vehicles were recorded on a busy day near London Heathrow Airport in 2003[1] and the western half experienced an average daily flow of 147,000 vehicles in 2007.[2]

Although technically not an entire orbital motorway – a short non-motorway stretch forms the Dartford Crossing (A282) of the River Thames – the M25, at 117 miles (188 km) is Europe's second longest orbital road after the Berliner Ring, which is 122 miles (196 km).

Description

Carriageway widths of the M25 November 2009

Originally built almost wholly as a dual three-lane motorway, much of the motorway has been widened: to dual four-lanes for almost half, to a dual five-lanes section between junctions 12 and 14 and a dual six-lane section between junctions 14 and 15. Further widening is in progress of minor sections with plans for managed motorways in many others.[3]

To the east of London the two ends of the M25 are joined to complete a loop by the non-motorway A282 Dartford Crossing of the River Thames between Thurrock and Dartford. This crossing, which consists of twin two-lane tunnels and the four-lane QE2 (Queen Elizabeth II) bridge, is named Canterbury Way. Passage across the bridge or through the tunnels is subject to a toll, its level depending on the kind of vehicle. This stretch being non-motorway allows traffic, including that not permitted to use motorways, to cross the River Thames east of the Woolwich Ferry; the only crossing further to the east is a passenger ferry between Gravesend, in Kent, and Tilbury, in Essex.

At Junction 5, the clockwise carriageway of the M25 is routed off the main north–south dual carriageway onto the main east–west dual carriageway with the main north–south carriageway becoming the A21. In the opposite direction, to the east of the point where the M25 diverges from the main east–west carriageway, that carriageway become the M26 motorway.[4]

The radial distance from London (taken as Charing Cross) varies from 12.5 miles (20.1 km) in Potters Bar to 19.5 miles (31.4 km) in Byfleet. Three Greater London Boroughs (Enfield, Hillingdon and Havering) have realigned their boundaries to the M25 for minor stretches; while in others, most notably in Essex and Surrey, the radial gap between Greater London and the motorway reaches 7.8 miles (12.6 km),[5] neither of which coincide with the Metropolitan Green Belt. Major towns listed as destinations (right), in various counties, adjoin the M25. North Ockendon is the only settlement of Greater London situated outside the M25. In 2004, following an opinion poll, the London Assembly mooted for consultation alignment of the Greater London boundary with the M25.[6] "Inside the M25" and "outside/beyond the M25" are colloquial, looser alternatives to "Greater London" sometimes used in haulage. The Communications Act 2003 explicitly uses the M25 as the boundary in requiring a proportion of television programmes to be made outside the London area.[7]

Two Motorway service areas are on the M25, and two others are directly accessible from it. Those on the M25 are Clacket Lane between junctions 5 and 6 (in the south-east) and Cobham between junctions 9 and 10 (in the south-west). Those directly accessible from it are South Mimms off junction 23 (to the north of London) and Thurrock off junction 31 (to the east of London). Cobham services opened on 13 September 2012.[8][9]

Originally, the M25 was unlit until except for sections around Heathrow, major interchanges and Junctions 23–30. Originally, low pressure sodium (SOX) lighting was the most prominent technology used, but widening projects from the 1990s onwards have all used high-pressure sodium (SON) lighting and this has diminished the original installations. By 2014 only one significant stretch was still SOX-lit (Junction 25–26) and the units were removed the same year.

The motorway passes through five counties. Junctions 1A–5 are in Kent, 6–14 are in Surrey, 15–16 are in Buckinghamshire, 17–25 are in Hertfordshire, and 26–31 are in Essex. Policing of the road is carried out by an integrated policing group made up of the Metropolitan, Thames Valley, Essex, Kent, Hertfordshire and Surrey forces.

The M25 is one of Europe's busiest motorways. In 2003, a maximum of 196,000 vehicles a day were recorded on the motorway just south of London Heathrow Airport between junctions 13 and 14.[1]

History

Plans and construction

File:Ringways 3 & 4.png
Map of Ringways 3 & 4 showing sections combined to form the M25
The M25 motorway looking south between junctions 14 and 15, near Heathrow Airport. The red light from the overhead gantry, just visible in the distance, is the MIDAS system indicating a reduced speed limit due to congestion.
The M4/M25 motorway junction, near Heathrow Airport
The M25 between junction 24 (A111, Potters Bar) and 25 (A10, Waltham Cross & Enfield)
The M25 between junctions 7 (M23) and 6 (A22) near Redhill, Surrey. The signs are indicating an advisory reduced speed of 40 mph (64 km/h) due to congestion.

A precursor of the M25 was the North Orbital Road (see A414 road).

The idea of an orbital road around London was first proposed early in the 20th century and then re-examined in Sir Charles Bressey's and Sir Edwin Lutyens' The Highway Development Survey, 1937. Sir Patrick Abercrombie's County of London Plan, 1943 and Greater London Plan, 1944 proposed a series of five roads encircling the capital. The northern sections of the M25 follow a similar route to the World War II Outer London Defence Ring.

Little was done to progress these plans until the 1960s when the Greater London Council developed their London Ringways plan[10] consisting of four "rings" around the capital. Sections of the two outer rings – Ringway 3 (the 'M16 motorway') and Ringway 4 – were constructed in the early 1970s and were integrated into the single M25 orbital motorway. But the Ringways plan was hugely controversial owing to the destruction required for the inner two ring roads, (Ringway 1 and Ringway 2). Parts of Ringway 1 were constructed (including West Cross Route and Westway), against stiff opposition, before the overall plan was abandoned in 1973 following pressure from residents in the threatened areas.

Construction of parts of the two outer ring roads, Ringways 3 and 4, began in 1973. The first section, between South Mimms and Potters Bar in Hertfordshire (junction 23 to junction 24) opened in September 1975 and was given the temporary general purpose road designation A1178;(a section of motorway standard road, and which eventually was incorporated into the M25 was completed and operational before this. It was a Watford avoiding route between the M1 and the A40 between north Watford and Denham, and was locally known as the Croxley Green/Rickmansworth bypass, and was operational about 1973/4) a section south of London (junction 6 to junction 8) opened in 1976. A section of Ringway 3 south of the river between Dartford and Swanley (junction 1 to junction 3) was constructed between 1974 and 1977. In 1975 the plans for Ringway 3 were modified to combine it with Ringway 4, the outermost Ringway. The M25 as a component of ringway 4, was first conceived to be an east-west road south of London to relieve the A25, and running parallel to it, with its eastern end following the route of what is now the M26. However, it was subsequently routed northwards towards the Dartford Tunnel to form, in conjunction with similar roads, including the M16 planned to the north of London, part of the London Orbital.[4] The combined motorway was given the designation M25 which had originally been intended for the southern and western part of Ringway 4 and the M16 designation was dropped. The section of Ringway 3 west of South Mimms anti-clockwise around London to Swanley in Kent was cancelled. The stages were not constructed contiguously but in small sections. As the orbital road developed the sections were linked. Each section was presented to planning authorities in its own right and was individually justified, with almost 40 public inquiries relating to sections of the route. Maps at this time depicting these short sections named the route as the M16 but this changed before completion.

The section from Potters Bar to the Dartford Tunnel was constructed between 1979 and 1982. Construction of the M25 continued in stages until its completion in 1986. Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher officially opened the M25 on 29 October 1986, with a ceremony in the section between J22 and J23 (London Colney and South Mimms). The initial tenders for the construction of the M25 totalled £631.9 million. This did not include compulsory purchase of land and subsequent upgrades and repairs.

Operational history

Soon after the motorway opened in 1986 traffic levels exceeded the maximum design capacity and in 1990 the Secretary of State for Transport announced plans to widen the whole of the M25 to four lanes.[11] By 1993 the motorway, which was designed for a maximum of 88,000 vehicles per day, was carrying 200,000 vehicles per day.[12] 15% of UK motorway traffic volume was on the M25 and there were plans to add six lanes to the section from Junctions 12 to 15 as well as widening the rest of the motorway to four lanes.[13]

In parts, particularly the western third this plan went ahead, due to consistent congestion. Again, however, plans to widen further sections to eight lanes (four each way) were scaled back in 2009 in response to rising costs. The plans were reinstated in the agreed Highways Agency 2013-14 business plan.[14]

In 1995 a contract was awarded to widen the section between Junctions 8 and 10 from six to eight lanes for a cost of £93.4 million[15] and a Motorway Incident Detection and Automatic Signalling (MIDAS) system was introduced to the M25 from Junction 10 to Junction 15 at a cost of £13.5m in 1995. This was then extended to Junction 16 at a cost of £11.7m in 2002. This consists of a distributed network of traffic and weather sensors, speed cameras and variable-speed signs that control traffic speeds with little human supervision, and has improved traffic flow slightly, reducing the amount of start-stop driving.[16]

In 1995 there was a proposal to widen the section close to Heathrow Airport to fourteen lanes. This attracted fierce opposition from road protesters opposing the Newbury Bypass and other schemes[17] and it was cancelled shortly afterwards.[18] In 1997, however, the Department of Transport announced new proposals to widen the section between Junction 12 (M3) and Junction 15 (M4) to twelve lanes. At the Terminal Five public inquiry a Highways Agency official said that the widening was needed to accommodate traffic to the proposed new terminal, however the transport minister said that no such evidence had been given.[19] Environmental groups objected to the decision to go ahead with a scheme that would create the widest motorways in the UK without holding a public inquiry.[20] The decision was again deferred. A decision to go-ahead was given for a ten-lane scheme in 1998[21] and the £148 million 'M25 Jct 12 to 15 Widening' contract was awarded to Balfour Beatty in 2003.[22] The scheme was completed in 2005 as dual-five lanes between Junctions 12 and 14 and dual-six lanes from Junctions 14 to 15.[23]

In 2007 capacity at Junction 25 (A10/Waltham Cross) was increased and the Holmesdale Tunnel was widened to three lanes in an easterly direction at a cost of £75 million.[24]

Work to widen the exit slip-roads in both directions at Junction 28 (A12 road/A1023) was completed in 2008. It was designed to reduce the amount of traffic queueing on the slip roads at busy periods, particularly traffic from the clockwise M25 joining the northbound A12 where the queue extended onto the inside lane of the Motorway.[25]

Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) contract

A control room for the M25 J5-7 Smart Motorways scheme, 2014.

In 2006 the Highways Agency proposed to widen 63 miles (101 km) of M25 from six to eight lanes, between junctions 5–6 and 16–30 as part of a Design, Build, Finance and Operate (DBFO) project.[26] A shortlist of contractors was announced in October 2006 for the project which was expected to cost £4.5 billion.[27] Contractors were asked to resubmit their bids in January 2008[28] and in June 2009 the new transport minister indicated that the cost had risen to £5.5 billion and the benefit to cost ratio had dropped considerably.[29] In January 2009 the government announced that plans to widen the sections from Junction 5–7 and from 23–27 had been 'scrapped' and that hard shoulder running would be introduced instead. However widening was reinstated to four lanes in the 2013–14 Highways Agency Business Plan.[3][30]

In 2009 a £6.2 billion M25 DBFO private finance initiative contract[31] was awarded to Connect Plus to widen the sections between junctions 16 and 23 and between junctions 27 and 30 and maintain the M25 and the Dartford Crossing for a 30-year period.[32]

Works to widen the section between Junctions 16 (M40) and 23 (A1(M)) to dual four lanes[33] started in July 2009 at an estimated cost of £580 million.[34] The Junction 16 to 21 (M1) section was completed by July 2011 and the Junction 21 to 23 by June 2012.[35] Works to widen the Junctions 27 (M11) to 30 (A13) section to dual four lanes also started in July 2009. The Junction 27 to 28 (A12) section was completed in July 2010,[36] the Junction 28 to 29 (A127) in June 2011 and finally the Junction 29 to 30 (A13) section opened in May 2012.[37]

Works to introduce managed motorway technology and permanent hard shoulder running on two sections of the M25 began in 2013. The first section between Junctions 5 (A21/M26) and 7 (M23) started construction in May 2013 with the scheme being completed and opened in April 2014.[38] The second section, between Junctions 23 (A1/A1(M)) and 27 (M11), began construction in February 2013 and was completed and opened in November 2014.[39]

Developments under construction

Junction 30 improvement

Inside the Bell Common Tunnel near Epping

Preparation work to increase capacity at Junction 30 (Thurrock) as part of the Thames Gateway Delivery Plan is underway although there is no guarantee of delivery. Plans were announced in 2007. An early estimate on the start of major works was given as 2013/2014.[40] Philip Hammond has confirmed that there will be no funding for the J30 improvements in this spending period, but has announced that preparation work would continue so that the scheme could be funded at a later date.[41]

Conditional Proposals

Lower Thames Crossing

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Main article: Lower Thames Crossing

In 2009 the Department for Transport published options for a new Lower Thames Crossing to add capacity to the Dartford Crossing or create a new road and crossing linking to the M2 and M20 motorways.[42]

Comparisons

The M25 is the second-longest ring road in Europe, after the Berlin Ring (A 10), which is 5 miles (8.0 km) longer.

Other cities in the UK encircled by motorways include: Birmingham, using parts of the M5, M6 and M42, and Manchester, using the M60. Additionally, from 2011 Glasgow has an orbital motorway made of the M8, M73 and M74, although one section of the route passes through the centre of the city.[43]

The M25 is one of the busiest motorways in Europe. Here are some comparisons:

  • Saint Petersburg Ring Road: more than 150,000 vehicles on an average day.
  • Grande Raccordo Anulare (Rome): more than 160,000 vehicles on an average day
  • M25 around London: 196,000 vehicles a day recorded in 2003 between junctions 13 and 14 near London Heathrow Airport.[1]
  • A23 (Vienna): more than 200,000 vehicles on an average day.
  • A 100 (Berlin): 216,000 vehicles in a day was recorded in 1998
  • Rotterdam Ring Road: 227,000 vehicles a day, in 8 years 280,000 a day by the Van Brienenoordbrug
  • Moscow Ring Road: more than 250,000 vehicles on an average day.
  • A4 motorway (near Paris): 257,000 vehicles a day recorded in 2002.[44]

Popular culture

The multi-level stack interchange junction with the M23, viewed from a nearby footbridge to the west

Iain Sinclair's 2002 book and film London Orbital is based on a year-long journey around the M25 on foot.[45]

The M25 (including the A282 Dartford Crossing) is known for its frequent traffic jams. These have been the subject of so much comment from such an early stage that even at the official opening ceremony Margaret Thatcher complained about "those who carp and criticise". The jams have inspired jokes (e.g., "the world's first circular car park", "the London Orbital Car Park") and songs (e.g., Chris Rea's "The Road to Hell").[46]

The M25 plays a role in the comedy-fantasy novel Good Omens, as "evidence for the hidden hand of Satan in the affairs of Man".[47] The demon character, Crowley, had manipulated the design of the M25 to resemble a Satanic sigil.[48]

The M25 enjoyed a more positive reputation among ravers in the late 1980s, when this new orbital motorway became a popular route to the parties that took place around the outskirts of London. This use of the M25 for these raves inspired the name of electronic duo Orbital.[49]

Racing

M25 at junction 30 near Purfleet, Essex

The orbital nature of the motorway, in common with racetracks, lent itself to unofficial, and illegal, motor racing. At the end of the 1980s, before the advent of speed enforcement devices, owners of supercars, many employed in the financial service industry in the City and in Docklands[citation needed], would meet at night at service stations such as South Mimms and conduct time trials. Times below 1 hour were achieved - an average speed of over 117 mph (188 km/h), which included coming to a halt at the Dartford Tunnel road user charge payment booths.[50][51]

Junctions

Data from driver location signs provide carriageway identifier information.[52] The numbers on the signs are kilometres from a point near the River Thames, east of London, when travelling clockwise on the motorway. The table below gives details of each junction, including the roads interchanged and the destinations that are signed from the motorway on the blue advance direction signs. Figures in kilometres are from the driver location signs; figures in miles are derived from them.

A282 road – Dartford Crossing
miles km[52] Clockwise exits (A carriageway)[52] Junction Anti-clockwise exits (B carriageway) European Route
Dartford Crossing A282
Queen Elizabeth Bridge		 River Dartford Crossing A282
Dartford Toll Tunnel		 Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
3.5 5.7 Erith A206 J1A Erith A206, Swanscombe (A226) Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
4.7 7.5 Dartford A225 J1B Exit via J2 – Dartford (A225) Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
M25 motorway – London Orbital
5.5 8.8 London (SE & C), Bexleyheath A2 (W), Canterbury (M2) A2 (E) Ebbsfleet International J2 London (SE & C), Bexleyheath A2, Canterbury (M2), Dartford (A225) Ebbsfleet International, Bluewater

Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
8.7 14.0 London (SE & C) A20
Maidstone, Channel Tunnel, Folkestone M20
Swanley B2173 Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15		 J3 Maidstone, Channel Tunnel M20
London (SE & C), Lewisham A20
12.2 19.6 Bromley A21
Orpington A224		 J4 Bromley, London (SE & C) A21
Orpington (A224)
Hayes
16.3
16.4		 26.2
26.4		 Sevenoaks, Royal Tunbridge Wells, Hastings A21 J5 Maidstone, Channel Tunnel, Dover M26 (M20)
Sevenoaks, Hastings A21
21.0 33.8 Clacket Lane services Services Clacket Lane services
25.8 41.6 East Grinstead, Eastbourne, Caterham, Godstone A22
Redhill, Westerham (A25)		 J6 East Grinstead, Eastbourne, Caterham, Godstone A22
Redhill, Westerham (A25)
28.6 46.0 Gatwick Airport, Crawley, Brighton, Croydon M23 J7 Gatwick Airport, Crawley, Brighton, M23(S), Croydon M23(N)
31.9 51.4 London (S & SW), Reigate, Sutton A217
Kingston (A240)		 J8 London (S & SW), Reigate, Sutton A217
Kingston (A240)
38.5
39.5		 62.0
63.5		 Leatherhead A243, Dorking, (A24) J9 Leatherhead A243, Dorking (A24)
42.6
43.2		 68.6
69.5		 Cobham services Services Cobham services
45.0 72.4 London (SW & C), Guildford, Portsmouth A3 J10 London (SW & C), Guildford, Kingston A3
49.8 80.2 Chertsey A317, Woking A320 J11 Woking A320, Chertsey A317
52.1 83.8 Basingstoke, Southampton, Richmond M3 J12 Basingstoke, Southampton, Richmond M3
55.2 88.8 London (W & C), Hounslow, Staines A30 J13 London (W & C), Hounslow, Staines A30
57.0 91.8 Heathrow Airport (Terminals 4, 5 and Cargo) A3113 J14 Heathrow Airport (Terminals 4, 5 and Cargo) A3113
59.0 95.0 The West, Slough, Reading, London (W & C), Heathrow Airport (Terminals 1, 2 and 3) M4 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30 J15 The West, Slough, Reading M4(W)
London (W & C), Heathrow Airport (Terminals 1, 2 & 3) M4(E)		 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
63.8 102.6 The North, Birmingham, Oxford, Uxbridge, London (W & C) M40 J16 Birmingham, Oxford M40(W)
Uxbridge, London (W & C) M40(E)		 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
68.7 110.5 Rickmansworth, Maple Cross (A412) J17 Rickmansworth, Maple Cross A412 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
69.9 112.5 Chorleywood, Amersham A404 J18 Chorleywood, Amersham A404 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
71.5 116.4 Watford A41 J19 Exit via J20 - Watford A41 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
73.5 118.2 Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury A41 J20 Hemel Hempstead, Aylesbury, Watford A41 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
76.3 122.8 The North, Luton & Luton Airport M1 J21 The North, Luton & Luton Airport M1 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
76.9 123.7 Watford A405
Harrow (M1 South) Tabliczka E13.svg European route E13		 J21A St Albans A405
London (NW & C) (M1 (South))		 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
80.6 129.7 London Colney A1081 J22 St Albans A1081 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
83.3 134.0 Hatfield A1(M), London (NW & C) A1, Barnet A1081
South Mimms services		 J23 Hatfield A1(M), London (NW & C) A1, Barnet A1081
South Mimms services		 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30
85.9 138.2 Potters Bar A111 J24 Potters Bar A111 Tabliczka E15.svgTabliczka E30.svg/ European route E15 /European route E30
91.4 147.1 Enfield Town, Hertford A10 J25 Enfield, Hertford, London (N & C) A10 Tabliczka E15.svg/Tabliczka E30.svg European route E15 /European route E30
94.9 152.7 Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 J26 Waltham Abbey, Loughton A121 Tabliczka E15.svg/Tabliczka E30.svg European route E15 / European route E30
99.2 159.7 London (NE & C), Stansted Airport, Harlow, Cambridge M11 J27 London (NE & C) M11(N), Stansted Airport, Harlow, Cambridge M11(S) Tabliczka E15.svg/Tabliczka E30.svg European route E15 /European route E30
107.1 172.4 Chelmsford, Witham, Colchester A12
Brentwood A1023 Tabliczka E30.svg European route E30		 J28 Chelmsford, Romford A12
Brentwood A1023		 Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
109.9 176.8 Romford, Basildon, Southend A127 J29 Basildon, Southend, Romford A127 Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
115.2 185.4 Tilbury, Thurrock, Lakeside A13(E), London (E & C) A13(W)
Thurrock services		 J30 London (E & C), Barking, Tilbury, Basildon, Dagenham, Rainham A13 Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
A282 Road – Dartford Crossing
115.9 186.6 Exit via J30 – Purfleet (A1090), South Ockendon, Thurrock services A1306 J31 Thurrock (Lakeside), Thurrock services A1306, Purfleet (A1090), West Thurrock (A126) Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
Dartford Crossing A282
Queen Elizabeth Bridge		 River Dartford Crossing A282
Dartford Toll Tunnel		 Tabliczka E15.svg European route E15
Notes
  • Distances in kilometres and carriageway identifiers are obtained from driver location signs/location marker posts. Where a junction spans several hundred metres and the data is available, both the start and finish values for the junction are shown.
1.000 mi = 1.609 km; 1.000 km = 0.621 mi

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ Office for National Statistics Social Trends - Transport p197
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Business Plan 2013-14 Highways Agency
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  5. ↑ Grid reference Finder Generic map measurement tools
  6. ↑ This move would be bound to be resisted by the communities affected, including such major towns as Watford, Loughton and Epsom. London Assembly – Poll says M25 is London's "natural boundary". 2 March 2004.
  7. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. that requires "a suitable proportion of the programmes made in the United Kingdom" to be made "in the United Kingdom outside the M25 area", defined in Section 362 as "the area the outer boundary of which is represented by the London Orbital Motorway (M25)".
  8. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ London Ringways Plan http://www.cbrd.co.uk/histories/ringways/ Retrieved 2013-01-06
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  22. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  23. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  24. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  25. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  26. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  27. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  28. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.[dead link]
  29. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  34. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  35. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
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  38. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  39. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  40. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  41. ↑ Local Transport Today, Issue 557, Page 6
  42. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  44. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  45. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  46. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  47. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  48. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  49. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  50. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  51. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 52.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Further reading

  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found..
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found..
  • Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found..

External links

Script error: No such module "Attached KML".

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